Summary Notes on The
Decision Makers - Ethics for Engineers, by J. Armstrong, R. Dixon, and S.
Robinson, 1999, Thomas Telford, 159 pages.
Summarized by J. T. P. Yao,
"When making a decision, an evaluation of alternative courses of action is required. Evaluation requires a set of basic values… This book explores the problems of decision making by the professional engineer. …"
"Ethical decisions are not just decisions about the best way to meet a given brief or objective. … They are concerned with the 'good' and the 'right', with conflicts between rival goods or ills. … Increasingly, the decisions of a single powerful individual can affect the lives of many millions of others - for better or for worse. … Ethical judgement is needed to maintain the stability of society without the undue imposition of formal regulations for every act. … The nature of the 'good' and the 'right' are discussed. …"
"… In abbreviated form they are set out below.
· People…
· Project brief…
· Context…
· Proposals…
· Implementation…
… In addition to setting out the framework for an ethical audit and showing its application to a specific project, chapters are included that suggest ways of teaching ethics to engineers. …"
"Ethical meaning can be considered through the concepts of duties and rights. …
· Duties are offered unconditionally. …
· Obligations are based upon contractual relationships and are specific. …
· Rights are basically freedoms which enable the individual to fulfill important human needs such as family support or education. …
Traditionally, rights are divided into moral rights, argued for on the basis of need, and legal rights, which are recognised and protected by law."
"The beautiful complexity and flexibility of the interaction… give rise to many areas of apparent conflict…, perhaps for generations. … Typical of these complexities are
· 'rival goods' - conflicts of interest
· cultural diversity
· environmental issues
· sustainability
· national interests, political/economic/security
· trans-national projects
· conflicts of law - justice
· contracts - competition
· private v. state finance
· design build
· financial investment policy - initial cost v. operating costs
· employment
· health and safety"
"Firstly, ethics involves the discipline of systematic enquiry into moral norms or standards of behaviour and their underlying values and justification. … Secondly, applied ethics looks into the ways in which moral value… can be applied to particular areas of concern such as the professions or business. …"
"Definitions of the moral good can be based upon one of several philosophical theories.
· Deontological (to do with duty)…
· Consequentialist (concerned with outcomes)…
· Virtue (concerned with moral excellence)…
All of these theories have their flaws and in the end cannot exclusively define what is morally good. …"
"Ethics is not about simply recognising an objective good, not least because ethical knowledge is not objective in the way that empirical or scientific data can be. … This may be summed up in terms of the 'golden rule' - a concept common to many different ethical systems and cultures, including the following.
· Christian version…
· Hindu version…
· Confucian version…
· Buddhist version…
· Jewish version…
· Muslim version…
In these versions of the 'golden rule', there is a balance of concern for the self and the other, which is in essence unconditional. …"
"There are several implications to this principle of individual needs and value.
· It is impossible to build an adequate universal ethic on the interests of any particular section or group.
· The nature of morality has to transcend such interests not least because if it were based upon such interests it would lead to exclusion and injustice.
· Morality must always start with an acceptance of responsibility both for the self and for the other."
"Four principles have been suggested as a reference point for the professional; these are
· Equal respect for the autonomy of others
· Concern for the good of others
· A concern to avoid harming others
· Justice - a concern for equitable treatment for all parties…"
"The importance of the virtues in ethical practice is clear. It is said that there are four fundamental virtues…
· Wisdom
· Temperance
· Fortitude
· Justice"
"The Oxford Shorter Dictionary defines a profession as: 'A vocation, a calling, one requiring advanced knowledge or training in some branch or learning or science'. To be a member of a profession, therefore, is to
· Have specialised knowledge and skill
· Have power…
· Have autonomy of practice…
· Have a monopoly or near monopoly of a particular skill
· Have undergone in extensive period of training which includes not simply skills but a strong intellectual element
· Be a member of professional body which is responsible for regulating standards, protecting rights of practice and ensuring proper training"
"Professional practitioners… need six core qualities
· Integrity…
· Independence…
· Impartiality…
· Responsibility…
· Competence…
· Discretion…"
"The engineer owes responsibility to
· The general public/society
· The users of the project
· The peer group of professional engineers and institutions
· Clients and employers.
Engineers are responsible for
· Their own actions
· Duties accepted and implicit in their work and institutions
· Legal requirements of the nations in which they practice
· Legal obligations imposed by contract
· The greater moral consequences of their actions, and of those for whom they are responsible."
"The engineer can be considered as playing several roles in society. He can be
· Savior…
· Guardian…
· Bureaucratic servant…
· Social servant…
· Game player…"
"An Institution can
· Enable the professional development of moral awareness, skills, responsibility and identity, through codes, dialogues and training
· Ensure that its processes and organization are conducive to the development of moral responsibility
· Provide support and the opportunity for professionals to work through decision making and any conflict of interest
· Regulate the practice of the individual professional
· Play a major role in communicating with the public
· Set standards for admissions to institutions and for initial and continuing professional training
· Act as a learned society, contributing to the advancement of sciences and technology of engineering."
"… the levels of responsibilities of all human beings… can be formulated as ranging from individual 'good', through family care and interests of various social groups… to mankind as a whole and the general quality of our habitat… These can be summarised as: What is good for
· The environment
· Mankind
· My associates…
· My family
· Me."
"The key factors which are evident in all codes [e.g., ICE, ASCE, EC, etc,] considered are set out below.
· Due regard must be given to health and safety, both immediate and in the long term.
· The need to enhance, or to diminish adverse effects upon, the quality of the environment… should be routine for all projects.
· The importance of ensuring public understanding of all the parameters of project development, and to involve them whenever practicable in the decision making process. …"
"The key factors concerning integrity and the public interest, from the point of view of the drafting of codes of conduct, are set out below.
· The adoption of a balanced, disciplined and comprehensive approach to problem solving. …
· The discharge of public functions reasonably and lawfully. …
· As far as possible all information should be freely available. …
· Procedures should be established and followed for reporting irregularities and conflict of interest. …"
"Whilst technical competence alone cannot guarantee trustworthy professional service, it is essential factor that must be present. To this end the professional person must
· Be fully trained and broadly educated, with an understanding of the context within which decisions are made, as well as of their technical soundness.
· Ensure that he/she maintain competence by continually updating and extending the understanding of technical and professional developments
· Contribute to the education and training of others…"
"The professional engineer has a personal duty toward fellow professionals to
· Carry out systematic reviews of personal ethical standards and to understand the significance of the ethical dimensions of means as well as ends
· Uphold the dignity, respect and trustworthiness of the profession
· Adhere to established professional codes of practice
· Not use his position to further private interests
· Perform services only in areas of his own competence
· Ensure that reputations are established on merit, not on unfair competition
· Support the work of professional societies"
"A checklist of actions which the engineer should consider if he thinks there is a problem, and that external reporting is called for, might include the following.
· Confirming that the risk to the public or to fellow workers warrants some action. …
· Motives, personal and corporate, should be carefully examined at an early stage. …
· The evidence should be verified and well documented, with records kept. …
· Determining the area of concern and identifying the appropriate referral agency. …
· Stating objections clearly. …
· All standard procedures should be followed. …
· Before standard procedures are bypassed, the issue should be presented to the person most concerned with the matter. …
· Anticipating and documenting any retaliation. …"
"The actions of the engineer on matters of sustainability and environmental impact are summarised below.
· Engineers must assume a responsibility for the effects of their work and endeavor to make a substantial contribution to the protection of the environment.
· They must not participate in projects that are unnecessarily destructive to the environment…
· Engineers should express their professional opinions on environmental matters…
· Where clear guidelines are available… the engineer should observe these and not seek to impose more stringent conditions. Where no national guidelines exist then the engineer has the responsibility set appropriate standards, to communicate these to others, and to work in accordance with these self-generated regulations.
· Should the engineer consider that the project is unnecessarily harmful to the environment then he should attempt to explain the situation to his clients. In the event of his opinion being disregarded the engineer has the right to withdraw form the project, with the right to make his concerns known to the relevant authorities."
"Bribery - to promote or give something, often illegally, to a person to procure services or gain influence.
Corruption - making or being corrupt, dishonesty especially bribery. Misuse of public power for private profit.
…
· Ethical thinking which enables the professional to understand the data, values and consequences of the case
· Careful attention to methods, so that the dilemma is not turned into a crusade - social and self-awareness and the development of a professional value system
· Awareness and development of codes of ethics in particular companies, or on a particular project, so that ethical discussions are open and evident
· Awareness and development of interdisciplinary codes in cross-cultural factors.
Because no simple rules will deal with all ethical problems the exercise of responsibility becomes central. … The professional must… take responsibility for ethical dilemmas and work through the ethical decision making process… The responsibilities of the engineer and the engineering profession include those to society in general."
"Values …
· Value clarification…
· Value classification…
· Value prioritisation…
· Value mapping…
The exercises also enable the individual to work on his or her own values and to test them at each stage. …
· The capacity to take responsibility
· The capacity to hold together very different and potentially conflicting values
· The capacity to respect values held by different groups
· The qualities of virtue and empathy, something developed by greater awareness of other's values
· Intellectual skills of analysis, argument and justification
· Greater personal awareness, as non-rational drives are distinguished from values and principles…"
[Readers who are interested in this book are encouraged to read the original version in its entirety. Other summary notes on civil engineering education are available on the Internet at http://lohman.tamu.edu under the heading "Summaries of Papers ..."]